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        Psychophysiological Mechanisms of Therapeutic
        Dolphin - Human Interactions
         






        Abstract

        The emerging field of dolphin assisted therapy is reviewed. The paradigm is traced from its roots in cognitive behavioural techniques, in which it enjoys success with developmentally and cognitively challenged children. Parallels with other animal assisted therapy are considered. The recent foray into neurophysiological evaluation, with electrochemical implications, is discussed. Interdisciplinary knowledge is synthesized to address implications. Ethical considerations and technological solutions to concerns about animal captivity are considered, with directions for future research with cetaceans and artificial alternatives included.
         
         

        Introduction
         

        "Diviner than the dolphin is nothing yet created"

        Oppian of Silica Greece, 200AD in McCulloch, 1998
        olphin assisted therapy (DAT) originally emerged from the animal assisted therapy arena. However, unique psycho-physiological changes reported in humans following interaction with dolphins seems to set cetacean encounters apart therapeutically. Initially used and explained as a behaviour modification phenomenon, with principals imported from other successfully employed interventions functioning on a reward system, the strong desire to interact with dolphins prompted attention span increases in cognitively challenged individuals. Although still maturing, the research paradigm grew from the need to objectively investigate anecdotal reports of therapeutic gains instigated by dolphin interaction.

        The unique cetacean characteristic, echolocative biosonar, dolphins' use of ultrasonic frequencies for echolocation (Birch,1997) are products of an evolutionary impetus for reliance on sound for communication as well as navigation. It may catalyse psychophysiological changes in humans and produce observed behavioural modification (Pinney, 1998). Psychophysiological effects of dolphin-human interaction can be considered a frequency mediated response in biological systems, dealing with potential methods of modifying human cerebral function through external stimuli characterised by their frequencies (Birch,1997). The possibilities of human-dolphin interaction have only been hinted at by research undertaken to date.

        In a field with little empirical data, absence of standard criteria of what constitutes therapeutic progress (Limond, Bradshaw & Cormack, 1997), anecdotal results preceding organized research and generating scepticism and cynicism (Birch,1997), researchers are endeavouring to amalgamate interdisciplinary knowledge. By quantify the phenomenon they are refuting associations with mystical explanations and 'New Age' sensibilities, an impediment to clarification of the phenomenon's mechanism (Martens, 1996). 

        Recognising the possibility of the entire field being dismissed as conjecture, or regarded as interchangeable with other forms of animal assisted therapy, David Cole's introduction of neurophysiological measures injected much needed credibility into the discipline. By collaborating with behaviourists, but incorporating this added dimension, Cole was able to speculate about mechanisms that may have instigated the behaviourists' success (AquaThought, 1997). The 1989 establishment of the AquaThought Foundation was a much needed milestone for the domain, in which isolated researchers acquired an interdisciplinary forum to propel the field towards objective investigation. Establishment of objective therapeutic merit was critical in ensuring that individuals who might benefit from such intervention were not precluded from gaining access to it (Martens, 1996).

        Psychoneuroimmunological advances, and refinements in collection and interpretation of electroencephalogram (EEG) data have assisted researchers in investigating neurological changes that may be occurring during dolphin-human encounters. Replicating potentially beneficial effects of dolphin encounters through use of virtual reality (VR) systems and specialised signal rendering applications (McCulloch, 1998) is imminent.

        Reflecting the balance between conjecture and empirical investigation that presently exists, the current review traces the emergence of the field, drawing from multi-disciplinary examples, in an attempt to clarify and synthesize possible underlying mechanisms. The chronology is not intended to imply a hierarchy of empirical importance, but illustrate the field's development, and demonstrate how the phenomenon operates on a variety of interdependent levels.


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